Linux fundamentals

 

• Fundamentals of Linux
• What is Operating System? Difference between Linux OS and Windows OS.
• Linux Architecture
• Linux Distributions
• Linux Setup on Windows using WSL and Docker
• 
  

  Linux Fundamentals:

  What is an Operating System?

  An operating system (OS) is system software that
  manages computer hardware, software resources, and provides common services for
  computer programs. It acts as a bridge between the user and the hardware.

  Key Functions of an Operating System:

  
  
  1. Process
     Management: Handles running programs (processes), including
     multitasking and scheduling.
  2. Memory
     Management: Manages the computer’s RAM; keeps track of each byte and
     allocates memory to processes when needed.
  3. File
     System Management: Organizes data into files and directories and
     manages how data is stored and retrieved.
  4. Device
     Management: Controls hardware components (like keyboards, mice,
     printers) through drivers.
  5. User
     Interface: Provides a way for users to interact with the system —
     either via a command-line interface (CLI) or a graphical user interface
     (GUI).
  6. Security
     and Access Control: Ensures only authorized users and processes can
     access system resources.

  Common Examples of Operating Systems:

  
  
  • Windows
    (by Microsoft)
  • macOS
    (by Apple)
  • Linux
    (open-source)

   

   

   

   

  Linux Operating System?

  What are the core components of Linux OS?

   

      

  Linux Path:

  

  

  Sbin :  /sbin
  stands for "system binary" and contains essential system binaries—that
  is, executable programs that are required for the system to boot, repair, or
  recover

  root@LAPTOP-FCBBVNS7:/sbin# ls -ltr

  total 14300

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root       952 Apr 26  2011 check_forensic

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      1773 Aug 
  2  2022 validlocale
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      9393 Oct 
  6  2022 update-catalog
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      4551 Oct 
  6  2022 install-sgmlcatalog
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  18977 Jul  5  2023 deluser
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         7 Jul 
  5  2023 delgroup -> deluser
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  55191 Jul  5  2023 adduser
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         7 Jul 
  5  2023 addgroup -> adduser

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      7052 Aug 12  2023 iptables-apply

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      6812 Oct 
  1  2023 make-ssl-cert

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      1438 Nov 28  2023 update-motd

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  16517 Dec  6  2023 invoke-rc.d
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  18147 Dec  6  2023 update-rc.d
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      9104 Dec 
  6  2023 service
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  17284 Dec 12  2023
  update-xmlcatalog
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root       936 Jan 
  1  2024 tarcat

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      1700 Jan 13  2024 update-info-dir

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      5446 Feb 
  4  2024 update-ca-certificates

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      7434 Mar 18  2024 apache2ctl

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  16130 Mar 18  2024 a2enmod
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  60080 Mar 31  2024 cron
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  182768 Mar 31  2024 sgdisk
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  203248 Mar 31  2024 gdisk
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  59880 Mar 31  2024 fixparts
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  170480 Mar 31  2024 cgdisk

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      3984 Mar 31  2024 update-shells

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      1111 Mar 31  2024 remove-shell

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      2659 Mar 31  2024 installkernel

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      1053 Mar 31  2024 add-shell

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  35392 Mar 31  2024 vdpa
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  92688 Mar 31  2024 tipc
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  645200 Mar 31  2024 tc
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  119312 Mar 31  2024 rtmon
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  28992 Mar 31  2024 rtacct

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         7 Mar 31  2024 ip -> /bin/ip

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  123472 Mar 31  2024 genl
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  154480 Mar 31  2024 devlink
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  82448 Mar 31  2024 dcb
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  111096 Mar 31  2024 bridge
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  26960 Mar 31  2024 arpd
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14640 Mar 31  2024 vcstime
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14776 Mar 31  2024 setvtrgb
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14712 Mar 31  2024 setvesablank
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  18752 Mar 31  2024 kbdrate
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  98424 Apr  4  2024 conntrack
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  39432 Apr  5  2024 chroot
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14904 Apr  8  2024 accessdb
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  790192 Apr  8  2024 rsyslogd
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  254680 Apr  8  2024 visudo
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  134832 Apr  8  2024 sudo_sendlog
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  254464 Apr  8  2024 sudo_logsrvd
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  35392 Apr  8  2024 update-passwd
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  667320 Apr  8  2024 ethtool
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  18736 Apr  8  2024 mount.fuse3
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        11 Apr 
  8  2024 mount.fuse ->
  mount.fuse3
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  224424 Apr  8  2024 xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 xtables-monitor ->
  xtables-nft-multi
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  95176 Apr  8  2024 xtables-legacy-multi
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  18736 Apr  8  2024 nfnl_osf
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 iptables-translate ->
  xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        31 Apr 
  8  2024 iptables-save ->
  /etc/alternatives/iptables-save
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 iptables-restore-translate
  -> xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        34 Apr 
  8  2024 iptables-restore ->
  /etc/alternatives/iptables-restore
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 iptables-nft-save ->
  xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 iptables-nft-restore ->
  xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 iptables-nft ->
  xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        20 Apr 
  8  2024 iptables-legacy-save ->
  xtables-legacy-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        20 Apr 
  8  2024 iptables-legacy-restore
  -> xtables-legacy-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        20 Apr 
  8  2024 iptables-legacy ->
  xtables-legacy-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        26 Apr 
  8  2024 iptables ->
  /etc/alternatives/iptables
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 ip6tables-translate ->
  xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        32 Apr 
  8  2024 ip6tables-save ->
  /etc/alternatives/ip6tables-save
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024
  ip6tables-restore-translate -> xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        35 Apr 
  8  2024 ip6tables-restore ->
  /etc/alternatives/ip6tables-restore
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 ip6tables-nft-save ->
  xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 ip6tables-nft-restore
  -> xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 ip6tables-nft ->
  xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        20 Apr 
  8  2024 ip6tables-legacy-save
  -> xtables-legacy-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        20 Apr 
  8  2024 ip6tables-legacy-restore
  -> xtables-legacy-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        20 Apr 
  8  2024 ip6tables-legacy ->
  xtables-legacy-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        14 Apr 
  8  2024 ip6tables-apply ->
  iptables-apply
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        27 Apr 
  8  2024 ip6tables ->
  /etc/alternatives/ip6tables
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 ebtables-translate ->
  xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        31 Apr 
  8  2024 ebtables-save ->
  /etc/alternatives/ebtables-save
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        34 Apr 
  8  2024 ebtables-restore ->
  /etc/alternatives/ebtables-restore
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 ebtables-nft-save ->
  xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 ebtables-nft-restore ->
  xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 ebtables-nft ->
  xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        26 Apr 
  8  2024 ebtables ->
  /etc/alternatives/ebtables
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        32 Apr 
  8  2024 arptables-save ->
  /etc/alternatives/arptables-save
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        35 Apr 
  8  2024 arptables-restore ->
  /etc/alternatives/arptables-restore
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 arptables-nft-save ->
  xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 arptables-nft-restore
  -> xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Apr 
  8  2024 arptables-nft ->
  xtables-nft-multi
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        27 Apr 
  8  2024 arptables ->
  /etc/alternatives/arptables
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  96504 Apr  8  2024 logrotate
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  36944 Apr  8  2024 slattach
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  69904 Apr  8  2024 route
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  33104 Apr  8  2024 rarp
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14648 Apr  8  2024 plipconfig
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14736 Apr  8  2024 nameif
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  27376 Apr  8  2024 mii-tool
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  18744 Apr  8  2024 iptunnel
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  18744 Apr  8  2024 ipmaddr
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  79024 Apr  8  2024 ifconfig
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  63088 Apr  8  2024 arp
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  26856 Apr  8  2024 nft
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  26856 Apr  8  2024 killall5
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14648 Apr  8  2024 fstab-decode
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  56024 Apr  8  2024 rmt-tar
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        21 Apr 
  8  2024 rmt ->
  /etc/alternatives/rmt

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root       137 Apr 12  2024 aa-teardown

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      4536 Apr 12  2024 dpkg-reconfigure

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      4356 Apr 12  2024 dpkg-preconfigure

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        11 Apr 18  2024 rmmod -> ../bin/kmod

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        11 Apr 18  2024 modprobe -> ../bin/kmod

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        11 Apr 18  2024 modinfo -> ../bin/kmod

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        11 Apr 18  2024 lsmod -> ../bin/kmod

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        11 Apr 18  2024 insmod -> ../bin/kmod

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        11 Apr 18  2024 depmod -> ../bin/kmod

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  113216 Apr 28  2024 tune2fs
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  71992 Apr 28  2024 resize2fs
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14648 Apr 28  2024 mklost+found

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         6 Apr 28  2024 mkfs.ext4 -> mke2fs

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         6 Apr 28  2024 mkfs.ext3 -> mke2fs

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         6 Apr 28  2024 mkfs.ext2 -> mke2fs

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  133752 Apr 28  2024 mke2fs
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14496 Apr 28  2024 logsave

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         6 Apr 28  2024 fsck.ext4 -> e2fsck

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         6 Apr 28  2024 fsck.ext3 -> e2fsck

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         6 Apr 28  2024 fsck.ext2 -> e2fsck

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  18760 Apr 28  2024 filefrag
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  35128 Apr 28  2024 e4defrag
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  31104 Apr 28  2024 e4crypt
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  22840 Apr 28  2024 e2undo

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      5394 Apr 28  2024 e2scrub_all

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      7294 Apr 28  2024 e2scrub

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         8 Apr 28  2024 e2mmpstatus -> dumpe2fs

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         7 Apr 28  2024 e2label -> tune2fs

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  43328 Apr 28  2024 e2image
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  373080 Apr 28  2024 e2fsck
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  18744 Apr 28  2024 e2freefrag
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  35136 Apr 28  2024 dumpe2fs
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  231288 Apr 28  2024 debugfs
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  35144 Apr 28  2024 badblocks

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      2890 Apr 30  2024 pam_getenv

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  21465 Apr 30  2024 pam-auth-update
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  35136 May  2  2024 unix_update
  -rwxr-sr-x 1 root shadow  
  31040 May  2  2024 unix_chkpwd
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  22848 May  2  2024 pwhistory_helper
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14656 May  2  2024 pam_timestamp_check
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root       467 May 
  2  2024 pam_namespace_helper
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  35136 May  2  2024 pam_extrausers_update
  -rwxr-sr-x 1 root shadow  
  26944 May  2  2024 pam_extrausers_chkpwd
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  22872 May  2  2024 mkhomedir_helper
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  22848 May  2  2024 faillock
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  404888 May  7  2024 dhcpcd
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      2273 May 
  7  2024 shadowconfig
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  62144 May 30  2024 vipw

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         4 May 30  2024 vigr -> vipw

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  130712 May 30  2024 usermod
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  93192 May 30  2024 userdel
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  143232 May 30  2024 useradd
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  47272 May 30  2024 pwunconv
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  47272 May 30  2024 pwconv
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  55592 May 30  2024 pwck
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14640 May 30  2024 nologin
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  89048 May 30  2024 newusers
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  51368 May 30  2024 grpunconv
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  51368 May 30  2024 grpconv
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  59720 May 30  2024 grpck
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  72744 May 30  2024 groupmod
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  59744 May 30  2024 groupmems
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  64424 May 30  2024 groupdel
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  72840 May 30  2024 groupadd
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  49608 May 30  2024 cppw

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         4 May 30  2024 cpgr -> cppw

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  55736 May 30  2024 chpasswd
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  59720 May 30  2024 chgpasswd
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         7 Jul 
  1  2024 dmstats -> dmsetup
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  175160 Jul  1  2024 dmsetup
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  16351 Jul  1  2024 blkdeactivate
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  48632 Jul 17  2024
  start-stop-daemon

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         9 Jul 18  2024 apparmor_status -> aa-status

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root  
  1629848 Jul 18  2024
  apparmor_parser
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  40000 Jul 18  2024 aa-status

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      3225 Jul 18  2024 aa-remove-unknown

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  39680 Jul 18  2024 aa-load
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      3057 Aug 
  8  2024 update-locale
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      4316 Aug 
  8  2024 locale-gen
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        16 Aug 
  8  2024 telinit ->
  ../bin/systemctl
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        16 Aug 
  8  2024 shutdown ->
  ../bin/systemctl
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        16 Aug 
  8  2024 runlevel ->
  ../bin/systemctl
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        17 Aug 
  8  2024 resolvconf ->
  ../bin/resolvectl
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        16 Aug 
  8  2024 reboot ->
  ../bin/systemctl
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        16 Aug 
  8  2024 poweroff ->
  ../bin/systemctl
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        22 Aug 
  8  2024 init ->
  ../lib/systemd/systemd
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        16 Aug 
  8  2024 halt ->
  ../bin/systemctl

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root       596 Aug 28  2024 update-icon-caches

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  31112 Sep 26  2024 sysctl
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        31 Oct 22  2024 netplan ->
  ../share/netplan/netplan.script
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  55824 Dec  5 02:26 zramctl
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  39296 Dec  5 02:26 wipefs
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  31624 Dec  5 02:26 uuidd
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  22912 Dec  5 02:26 switch_root
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  43392 Dec  5 02:26 swapon
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  22912 Dec  5 02:26 swapoff
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  18816 Dec  5 02:26 swaplabel
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  43392 Dec  5 02:26 sulogin
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  108928 Dec  5 02:26 sfdisk
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  55680 Dec  5 02:26 runuser
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  35200 Dec  5 02:26 rtcwake
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  22944 Dec  5 02:26 readprofile
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14720 Dec  5 02:26 pivot_root
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  51592 Dec  5 02:26 mkswap
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  43408 Dec  5 02:26 mkfs.minix
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  35144 Dec  5 02:26 mkfs.cramfs
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  22912 Dec  5 02:26 mkfs.bfs
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14720 Dec  5 02:26 mkfs
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  76304 Dec  5 02:26 losetup
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  27008 Dec  5 02:26 ldattach
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14720 Dec  5 02:26 isosize
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         6 Dec 
  5 02:26 getty -> agetty
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  43392 Dec  5 02:26 fstrim
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14720 Dec  5 02:26 fsfreeze
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  55712 Dec  5 02:26 fsck.minix
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  31168 Dec  5 02:26 fsck.cramfs
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  43440 Dec  5 02:26 fsck
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14720 Dec  5 02:26 findfs
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  117168 Dec  5 02:26 fdisk
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14720 Dec  5 02:26 ctrlaltdel
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  35200 Dec  5 02:26 chmem
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  31104 Dec  5 02:26 chcpu
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  97008 Dec  5 02:26 cfdisk
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  35200 Dec  5 02:26 blockdev
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  35200 Dec  5 02:26 blkzone
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  55720 Dec  5 02:26 blkid
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  22912 Dec  5 02:26 blkdiscard
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  60992 Dec  5 02:26 agetty
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  67984 Jan 28 17:07 zic
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root  
  1051280 Jan 28 17:07 ldconfig.real

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root       387 Jan 28 17:07 ldconfig

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  35296 Jan 28 17:07 iconvconfig

  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         5 Feb 14 20:39 mount.drvfs -> /init

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14648 Feb 20 15:49 setcap
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14648 Feb 20 15:49 getpcaps
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14648 Feb 20 15:49 getcap
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  58456 Feb 20 15:49 capsh

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      2217 Mar 28 15:23 applygnupgdefaults

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      3075 Mar 28 15:23 addgnupghome

  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      2415 Apr 
  3 14:36 split-logfile
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root    
  14648 Apr  3 14:36 httxt2dbm
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root        10 Apr 
  3 14:36 apachectl -> apache2ctl
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root   
  754232 Apr  3 14:36 apache2
  -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root      9831 Apr 
  3 14:36 a2query
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         7 Apr 
  3 14:36 a2ensite -> a2enmod
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         7 Apr 
  3 14:36 a2enconf -> a2enmod
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         7 Apr 
  3 14:36 a2dissite -> a2enmod
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         7 Apr 
  3 14:36 a2dismod -> a2enmod
  lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root         7 Apr 
  3 14:36 a2disconf -> a2enmod

  root@LAPTOP-FCBBVNS7:/sbin#